Definition and Examples of Deep Structure in Grammar

In transformational and generative grammar, deep structure (also known as  deep grammar  or  D-structure)  is the underlying syntactic structure—or level—of a sentence. In contrast to surface structure (the outward form of a sentence), deep structure is an abstract representation that identifies the ways a sentence can be analyzed and interpreted. Deep structures are generated by phrase-structure rules, and surface structures are derived from deep structures by a series of transformations. According to  the Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar  (2014): Deep and surface structure are often used as terms in a simple binary opposition, with the deep structure representing meaning, and the surface structure being the actual sentence we see. The terms deep structure and surface structure were popularized in the 1960s and 70s by American linguist Noam Chomsky, who eventually discarded the concepts in his minimalist program in the 1990s.   Properties of Deep Structure Deep structure  is a level of syntactic representation with a number of properties that need not necessarily go together. Four important properties of deep structure are: Major grammatical relations, such as  subject  of  and  object  of, are defined at deep structure.All  lexical  insertion occurs at deep structure.All transformations occur after deep structure.Semantic  interpretation occurs at deep structure. The question of whether there is a single level of representation with these properties was the most debated question in  generative grammar  following the publication of  Aspects  [of the Theory of Syntax 1965]. One part of the debate focused on whether transformations preserve meaning. – Alan Garnham,  Psycholinguistics: Central Topics. Psychology Press, 1985 Examples and Observations [Noam] Chomsky had identified a basic grammatical structure in Syntactic Structures [1957] that he referred to as kernel sentences. Reflecting mentalese, kernel sentences were where words and meaning first appeared in the complex cognitive process that resulted in an utterance. In [Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, 1965], Chomsky abandoned the notion of kernel sentences and identified the underlying constituents of sentences as deep structure. The deep structure was versatile insofar as it accounted for meaning and provided the basis for transformations that turned deep structure into surface structure, which represented what we actually hear or read. Transformation rules, therefore, connected deep structure and surface structure, meaning and syntax. – James D. Williams, The Teachers Grammar Book. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999 [Deep structure is a] representation of the syntax of a sentence distinguished by varying criteria from its surface structure. E.g. in the surface structure of Children are hard to please, the subject is children and the infinitive to please is the complement of hard. But in its deep structure, as it was understood especially in the early 1970s, is hard would have as its subject a subordinate sentence in which children is the object of please: thus, in outline [please children] is hard. – P.H. Matthews, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford University Press, 2007 ​Evolving Perspectives on Deep Structure The remarkable first chapter of Noam Chomskys Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) set the agenda for everything that has happened in generative linguistics since. Three theoretical pillars support the enterprise: mentalism, combinatoriality, and acquisition... A fourth major point of Aspects, and the one that attracted most attention from the wider public, concerned the notion of Deep Structure. A basic claim of the 1965 version of generative grammar was that in addition to the surface form of sentences (the form we hear), there is another level of syntactic structure, called Deep Structure, which expresses underlying syntactic regularities of sentences. For instance, a passive sentence like (1a) was claimed to have a Deep Structure in which the noun phrases are in the order of the corresponding active (1b): (1a) The bear was chased by the lion.(1b) The lion chased the bear. Similarly, a question such as (2a) was claimed to have a Deep Structure closely resembling that of the corresponding declarative (2b): (2a) Which martini did Harry drink?(2b) Harry drank that martini. ...Following a hypothesis first proposed by Katz and Postal (1964), Aspects made the striking claim that the relevant level of syntax for determining meaning is Deep Structure. In its weakest version, this claim was only that regularities of meaning are most directly encoded in Deep Structure, and this can be seen in (1) and (2). However, the claim was sometimes taken to imply much more: that Deep Structure is meaning, an interpretation that Chomsky did not at first discourage. And this was the part of generative linguistics that got everyone really excited—for if the techniques of transformational grammar could lead us to meaning, we would be in a position to uncover the nature of human thought... When the dust of the ensuing linguistic wars cleared around 1973 . . ., Chomsky had won (as usual)—but with a twist: he no longer claimed that Deep Structure was the sole level that determines meaning (Chomsky 1972). Then, with the battle over, he turned his attention, not to meaning, but to relatively technical constraints on movement transformations (e.g. Chomsky 1973, 1977). – Ray Jackendoff, Language, Consciousness, Culture: Essays on Mental Structure. MIT Press, 2007 Surface Structure and Deep Structure in a Sentence [Consider] the final sentence of [Joseph Conrads short story] The Secret Sharer: Walking to the taffrail, I was in time to make out, on the very edge of a darkness thrown by a towering black mass like the very gateway of Erebus—yes, I was in time to catch an evanescent glimpse of my white hat left behind to mark the spot where the secret sharer of my cabin and of my thoughts, as though he were my second self, had lowered himself into the water to take his punishment: a free man, a proud swimmer striking out for a new destiny. I hope others will agree that the sentence justly represents its author: that it portrays a mind energetically stretching to subdue a dazzling experience outside the self, in a way that has innumerable counterparts elsewhere. How does scrutiny of the deep structure support this intuition? First, notice a matter of emphasis, of rhetoric. The matrix sentence, which lends a surface form to the whole, is # S # I was in time # S # (repeated twice). The embedded sentences that complete it are I walked to the taffrail, I made out NP, and I caught NP. The point of departure, then, is the narrator himself: where he was, what he did, what he saw. But a glance at the deep structure will explain why one feels a quite different emphasis in the sentence as a whole: seven of the embedded sentences have sharer as grammatical subjects; in another three the subject is a noun linked to sharer by the copula; in two sharer is direct object; and in two more share is the verb. Thus thirteen sentences go to the semantic development of sharer as follows: The secret sharer had lowered the secret sharer into the water.The secret sharer took his punishment.The secret sharer swam.The secret sharer was a swimmer.The swimmer was proud.The swimmer struck out for a new destiny.The secret sharer was a man.The man was free.The secret sharer was my secret self.The secret sharer had (it).(Someone) punished the secret sharer.(Someone) shared my cabin.(Someone) shared my thoughts. In a fundamental way, the sentence is mainly about Leggatt, although the surface structure indicates otherwise... [The] progression in the deep structure rather precisely mirrors both the rhetorical movement of the sentence from the narrator to Leggatt via the hat that links them, and the thematic effect of the sentence, which is to transfer Leggatts experience to the narrator via the narrators vicarious and actual participation in it. Here I shall leave this abbreviated rhetorical analysis, with a cautionary word: I do not mean to suggest that only an examination of deep structure reveals Conrads skillful emphasis—on the contrary, such an examination supports and in a sense explains what any careful reader of the story notices. – Richard M. Ohmann, Literature as Sentences. College English, 1966. Reprinted in Essays in Stylistic Analysis, ed. by Howard S. Babb. Harcourt, 1972

Ancient Mesopotami Economy And Social Class - 1725 Words

Brianna Aronson Adekunle West Civ. HS 101-21 14 November 2014 Ancient Mesopotamia: Economy and Social Class In history, transitions were constantly being made all over the world. From new civilizations being created and discovered, to solving problems about food shortages or economy. Every civilization made transitions each day to advance their society to make living easier for all its people. In these civilizations they each had different economic systems and social classes, which told them the people worship and the people who were nothing more than slaves. More specifically is the Mesopotamian Civilization; they encountered and conquered various issues due to their industrial improvements through out time. The word†¦show more content†¦Mesopotamia has two kinds of agriculture: dry farming in the North (Assyria) and irrigation farming in the south (Babylonia and Sumer)† (Rhea Nemet-Nejat, 253). They used their northern land to raise the animals to produce those products and used the southern land to grow crops. All of these things for valuable to have so that they could trade. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers were the only way to make this possible, but they were constantly flooding which was bad for their land. To stop the flooding they created an irrigation system. This way they could control the way the rivers flow and prevent flooding. The irrigation system was also a great advancement for the civilization because of the hot climate which would dry out the soil with out it. Because this system was so important, it was a duty for the king to keep it working efficiently. Scribes and overseers managed the projects, and the common people were ordered to work on them through the system of forced labor. To be able to farm the people needed the equipment to do so. Farming tools were made of stone and bone. Metals such as bronze were far too expensive to use in this way, while copper was too soft for most uses. With all of the successful agriculture in

Comparative Essay Between Star Wars and Slumdog Millionaire free essay sample

The Phantom menace the first film out of the Prequel to the Star wars trilogy was directed by George Lucas (the director and creator of the Star Wars franchise) whereas Slumdog Millionaire on the other hand was directed by Danny Boyle. Even though both films were directed by different directors they both introduce the theme of the underdog battling their social circumstances to create a better life for themselves. This can be seen by Jamal Malik a Slumdog from the slums of Bombay (later Mumbai) who fights to get the girl and to change his circumstances and Anakin Skywalker who battles for his freedom from Watto his Naboo slave master. Jamal Malik and Anakin Skywalker are both characters that are able to challenge their ‘pre-set social standing’ and achieve their true potential. Both of these characters show the core theme of being able to achieve one’s goals despite the pre-set social standing. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Essay Between Star Wars and Slumdog Millionaire or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Directors of these two films are able to show this theme through their use of film techniques and character development. Throughout these films the directors give us real-world messages about how racisms and prejudice hinders the internal working of our society by giving us the analogy of their two respective characters and their social circumstances. Jamal Malik is presented to us by Danny Boyle as an intelligent, resourceful and caring person. However, Boyle also shows us that most people wouldn’t believe that he was capable of being this type of person due to his position in the Indian caste system (aka his social standing) as many would believe that Slumdog’s were no better than primitive beings. The Inspector helps us to understand the mind-set that Boyle is trying to show us about the way that Indian citizens view the people that life in their slums when he says â€Å"Doctors, Lawyers never get past 60 thousand rupees. †¦. What could a Slumdog possibly known†. This shows us that Indian’s view Slumdog’s as uneducated and stupid and this is a fact that Boyle keeps restating to us: â€Å" Baali, keep up! The Chaiwalah knows more than you†. Even though Boyle uses India and Jamal Malik to express the idea of racisms and prejudice towards people, he is not merely referring to India as a point of prejudice Boyle is actually saying that prejudice exists in our society in many countries around the world in many forms and he only uses India to express this because it is a place, that many people associate with prejudice existing. Though all this prejudice exists in India, Jamal is able to overcome his social circumstances by using his intelligence and wits to achieve his goal. This is mainly due to the power of love as Jamal seeks out his goal which is the love of his life Latika a girl from the slums that Jamal and Salim meet when their mother dies. Through his journey of finding Latika Jamal is able to prove himself and challenge other peoples believes about himself and other slum dwellers as in order to find Latika Jamal goes onto ‘Who wants to be a Millionaire’ where he is enduring Prem the TV show’s host mock his place in the caste system. Even though Prem mocks Jamal, Jamal answers the questions and is able to prove to Prem and the TV show’s audience that he is intelligent and isn’t bound to others peoples prejudices about him. Another fact that shows the Slumdog millionaire viewers about Jamal’s true potential is when he is able to counter act Prem, when he is pretending to give Jamal the ‘correct’ answer but is instead deceiving him so that he is not out shone in his own show. Anakin Skywalker faces similar problems to Jamal Malik in the respect that they both have to prove themselves to others. Anakin is imprisoned by Watto a Naboo slave owner who hinders Anakin from achieving his potential and thereby his goal of becoming a Jedi. The Post Pod Race sequence is a very important sequence in the film as it is where Anakin learns that his mother has not attained freedom from Watto. This sequence plays an important part in the movie as it shows Lucas audiences’ that achieving one’s goal comes with a sacrifice of one kind or another. Anakin’s main goal is that he could be free and become a jedi. Anakin mainly battles his social circumstances in the Pod race as he is able to battle the other racers to achieve his freedom as Gi Gon Jin is able to place a bet on his freedom. This results in Anakin having a real conviction to win as he knows that by winning the Pod race he will be able to prove himself to the Jedi knights and achieve his freedom. Helping the two Jedi Knights is important to Anakin as he believes that by helping them acquire the parts they need he is doing a good dead. This is something that threatens the social norm of the lower classes being uncaring and submissive as contrary to belief Anakin has a pure drive to disobey his slave master and to help his true friends. Anakin like Jamal faced sceptism and prejudice from others who judged him on his position in Naboo’s social hierarchy. This can be seen mainly seen through the film technique of dialogue and people’s behaviour towards the characters â€Å"you won’t beat me you slave scum! this piece of dialogue by Anakin’s racing opponent shows us how society views the lower classes as inferior beings that cannot succeed in life. This seriously hinders both the characters in their respective films and consequently hinders (but not stops) them from achieving their goals as people don’t take them seriously and mock them openly. However, Anakin doesn’t experience the same level of prejudice as Jamal as Watto recognises his ability in creating machines. This helps Anakin as it allows him to gain experience and knowledge in making technology which would allow him to finally achieve his goal of becoming a Jedi through building and manning a pod in the pod race which he consequently wins. Jamal’s talents on the other hand weren’t recognised by many people as many believed him stupid. Anakin was mainly able to challenge his social circumstances because of the two Jedi Knights (Obi Wan Kenobi and Gi Gon Jin) as they kindle his spark and they help him achieve his goal of freedom from his slave master by betting their spacecraft on him. Apart from the two Jedi’s Knights Anakin has his mother Shimi Skywalker, Anakin’s mother teaches him values and plays a large role in supporting and caring for him this allows Anakin to fight his social circumstances with much vigour once he has receives her blessing. This significantly differs to what Jamal goes through as his mother dies when he is very young so he has no real maternal influence to support him in his aspirations. On the contrary to what you might think Jamal has Latika his true love to motivate him towards success in this way the two characters are similar as they both have people they love to support them and drive them on their journey to battle their social circumstances and to achieve their potentials. Lucas and Boyle show us an important message about that way that we as a society judge others based on trivial things like their sex, social standing and ethnic groups and how racism and prejudice hinders individuals from achieving their goals. This is an important message for our global community as we live in a world of progress and innovation and by allowing others to achieve their aspirations we are consequently enabling our world to progress. Both Boyle and Lucas show us through Anakin Skywalker and Jamal Malik that changing these prejudices and overcoming them is not impossible as all one needs is vision and determination to battle these pre-set stereotypes. Battling one’s circumstances to make a fairer world is one of the main ideas explored in both of these films. Comparative Essay Between Star Wars and Slumdog Millionaire free essay sample The Phantom menace the first film out of the Prequel to the Star wars trilogy was directed by George Lucas (the director and creator of the Star Wars franchise) whereas Slumdog Millionaire on the other hand was directed by Danny Boyle. Even though both films were directed by different directors they both introduce the theme of the underdog battling their social circumstances to create a better life for themselves. This can be seen by Jamal Malik a Slumdog from the slums of Bombay (later Mumbai) who fights to get the girl and to change his circumstances and Anakin Skywalker who battles for his freedom from Watto his Naboo slave master. Jamal Malik and Anakin Skywalker are both characters that are able to challenge their ‘pre-set social standing’ and achieve their true potential. Both of these characters show the core theme of being able to achieve one’s goals despite the pre-set social standing. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Essay Between Star Wars and Slumdog Millionaire or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Directors of these two films are able to show this theme through their use of film techniques and character development. Throughout these films the directors give us real-world messages about how racisms and prejudice hinders the internal working of our society by giving us the analogy of their two respective characters and their social circumstances. Jamal Malik is presented to us by Danny Boyle as an intelligent, resourceful and caring person. However, Boyle also shows us that most people wouldn’t believe that he was capable of being this type of person due to his position in the Indian caste system (aka his social standing) as many would believe that Slumdog’s were no better than primitive beings. The Inspector helps us to understand the mind-set that Boyle is trying to show us about the way that Indian citizens view the people that life in their slums when he says â€Å"Doctors, Lawyers never get past 60 thousand rupees. †¦. What could a Slumdog possibly known†. This shows us that Indian’s view Slumdog’s as uneducated and stupid and this is a fact that Boyle keeps restating to us: â€Å" Baali, keep up! The Chaiwalah knows more than you†. Even though Boyle uses India and Jamal Malik to express the idea of racisms and prejudice towards people, he is not merely referring to India as a point of prejudice Boyle is actually saying that prejudice exists in our society in many countries around the world in many forms and he only uses India to express this because it is a place, that many people associate with prejudice existing. Though all this prejudice exists in India, Jamal is able to overcome his social circumstances by using his intelligence and wits to achieve his goal. This is mainly due to the power of love as Jamal seeks out his goal which is the love of his life Latika a girl from the slums that Jamal and Salim meet when their mother dies. Through his journey of finding Latika Jamal is able to prove himself and challenge other peoples believes about himself and other slum dwellers as in order to find Latika Jamal goes onto ‘Who wants to be a Millionaire’ where he is enduring Prem the TV show’s host mock his place in the caste system. Even though Prem mocks Jamal, Jamal answers the questions and is able to prove to Prem and the TV show’s audience that he is intelligent and isn’t bound to others peoples prejudices about him. Another fact that shows the Slumdog millionaire viewers about Jamal’s true potential is when he is able to counter act Prem, when he is pretending to give Jamal the ‘correct’ answer but is instead deceiving him so that he is not out shone in his own show. Anakin Skywalker faces similar problems to Jamal Malik in the respect that they both have to prove themselves to others. Anakin is imprisoned by Watto a Naboo slave owner who hinders Anakin from achieving his potential and thereby his goal of becoming a Jedi. The Post Pod Race sequence is a very important sequence in the film as it is where Anakin learns that his mother has not attained freedom from Watto. This sequence plays an important part in the movie as it shows Lucas audiences’ that achieving one’s goal comes with a sacrifice of one kind or another. Anakin’s main goal is that he could be free and become a jedi. Anakin mainly battles his social circumstances in the Pod race as he is able to battle the other racers to achieve his freedom as Gi Gon Jin is able to place a bet on his freedom. This results in Anakin having a real conviction to win as he knows that by winning the Pod race he will be able to prove himself to the Jedi knights and achieve his freedom. Helping the two Jedi Knights is important to Anakin as he believes that by helping them acquire the parts they need he is doing a good dead. This is something that threatens the social norm of the lower classes being uncaring and submissive as contrary to belief Anakin has a pure drive to disobey his slave master and to help his true friends. Anakin like Jamal faced sceptism and prejudice from others who judged him on his position in Naboo’s social hierarchy. This can be seen mainly seen through the film technique of dialogue and people’s behaviour towards the characters â€Å"you won’t beat me you slave scum! this piece of dialogue by Anakin’s racing opponent shows us how society views the lower classes as inferior beings that cannot succeed in life. This seriously hinders both the characters in their respective films and consequently hinders (but not stops) them from achieving their goals as people don’t take them seriously and mock them openly. However, Anakin doesn’t experience the same level of prejudice as Jamal as Watto recognises his ability in creating machines. This helps Anakin as it allows him to gain experience and knowledge in making technology which would allow him to finally achieve his goal of becoming a Jedi through building and manning a pod in the pod race which he consequently wins. Jamal’s talents on the other hand weren’t recognised by many people as many believed him stupid. Anakin was mainly able to challenge his social circumstances because of the two Jedi Knights (Obi Wan Kenobi and Gi Gon Jin) as they kindle his spark and they help him achieve his goal of freedom from his slave master by betting their spacecraft on him. Apart from the two Jedi’s Knights Anakin has his mother Shimi Skywalker, Anakin’s mother teaches him values and plays a large role in supporting and caring for him this allows Anakin to fight his social circumstances with much vigour once he has receives her blessing. This significantly differs to what Jamal goes through as his mother dies when he is very young so he has no real maternal influence to support him in his aspirations. On the contrary to what you might think Jamal has Latika his true love to motivate him towards success in this way the two characters are similar as they both have people they love to support them and drive them on their journey to battle their social circumstances and to achieve their potentials. Lucas and Boyle show us an important message about that way that we as a society judge others based on trivial things like their sex, social standing and ethnic groups and how racism and prejudice hinders individuals from achieving their goals. This is an important message for our global community as we live in a world of progress and innovation and by allowing others to achieve their aspirations we are consequently enabling our world to progress. Both Boyle and Lucas show us through Anakin Skywalker and Jamal Malik that changing these prejudices and overcoming them is not impossible as all one needs is vision and determination to battle these pre-set stereotypes. Battling one’s circumstances to make a fairer world is one of the main ideas explored in both of these films.